＊Historical Background

Assertiveness training has its roots in the "conditioned reflex therapy" proposed by behavioral therapist Andrew Salter in 1949 [1].

Salter believed that people who had been conditioned by overly strict upbringings to suppress their own voice needed to develop healthy self-expression — what he called assertion. In the 1950s, psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe developed assertiveness training for people struggling with interpersonal anxiety, demonstrating its effectiveness in reducing anxiety and improving expressive ability [2].

In the 1970s, Robert Alberti and Michael Emmons published Your Perfect Right, which became a bestseller and brought assertiveness to widespread public attention [3].

Manuel J. Smith further advanced the concept through When I Say No, I Feel Guilty, introducing the notion of "assertive rights" — the idea that self-expression is not merely a skill but a fundamental right. From there, assertiveness training expanded into education, social welfare, and the business world [4].

Today, assertiveness is recognized as an established social skill — the ability to express one's thoughts and feelings honestly while remaining respectful of others.


＊Scale Development

· Rathus, S. A. (1973) One of the earliest and most widely used assertiveness scales, the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule assesses the frequency and patterns of assertive behavior. It has been applied extensively in clinical, educational, and research settings and is internationally recognized [5].

· Galassi, J. P. et al. (1974) Galassi and colleagues developed the College Self-Expression Scale (later revised as the Adult Self-Expression Scale: ASES), a measure of assertive behavior in adults that captures a broad range of expressive styles including self-disclosure and direct communication [6].

· Machida et al. (2020) Machida and colleagues examined the reliability and validity of a Nurse Assertiveness Scale designed for use in clinical nursing settings. The scale is intended to assess practical assertiveness skills and holds potential for application in nursing education [7].

· Sekiguchi et al. (2019) Sekiguchi and colleagues developed an Assertiveness Self-Statement Scale for middle-aged and older adults, examining its reliability and validity. The scale is notable for its attention to age-related changes in expressive tendencies [8].

· Suzuki et al. (2017) Suzuki and colleagues developed an assertiveness scale for newly graduated female nurses, offering insights into workplace adaptation and the development of interpersonal relationships in clinical settings [9].

· Nozue et al. (2001) Nozue and colleagues investigated the characteristics and associated factors of assertiveness among nurses, including its relationship with the Japanese version of the Rathus scale. The study placed particular focus on assertiveness tendencies among nursing managers [10].

Drawing on these prior studies, this assessment adopts a three-factor structure comprising Aggressive Self-Expression, Passive Self-Expression, and Assertive Self-Expression as the basis for its diagnostic items.

A team consisting of certified psychologists, clinical psychologists, and graduates of psychology master's programs led the development process. Through discussion, it was decided to assess two factors — Aggressive Self-Expression and Passive Self-Expression — with those who score low on both classified as the Assertive type. Brainstorming sessions were held to generate items for each factor, which were then reviewed and refined. To allow users to complete the assessment quickly and receive clear results, ten items were selected for each factor.

• ● Aggressive Self-Expression
• I tend to use a harsh tone when criticizing others.
• I sometimes end up dominating arguments.
• I want to feel superior to others.
• I sometimes hurt others without realizing it.
• I find it difficult to read other people's feelings.
• I tend to tune out when others are speaking.
• I find it hard to empathize with others.
• I dislike being given instructions or feedback.
• I think others would describe my expression as stern.
• I can create a tense atmosphere around me.


• ● Passive Self-Expression
• I hold back what I want to say rather than expressing it.
• I tend to lose when arguments arise.
• I avoid talking things through even when conflict occurs.
• I often find myself being self-deprecating.
• I feel like I get scolded or criticized more than most people.
• I tend to watch others' reactions before acting or speaking.
• I listen to others but keep my own thoughts and feelings to myself.
• I am generally passive rather than proactive.
• I let others decide the direction of my life.
• I smile and go along with things even when I am unhappy.

● Number of Questions

Aggressive Self-Expression & Passive Self-Expression × 10 questions each

● 3-Point Scale

Yes = 2 points, Neutral = 1 point, No = 0 points

● High / Medium / Low Thresholds

12 or above　　Aggressive Expression — High

6 to 11　　　　Aggressive Expression — Moderate

5 or below　　 Aggressive Expression — Low

13 or above　　Passive Expression — High

8 to 12　　　　Passive Expression — Moderate

7 or below　　 Passive Expression — Low

This scale identifies the following 9 personality types. The type names were chosen through group discussion with the goal of being approachable and easy to relate to.

High Aggressive / High Passive　　Volatile

High Aggressive / Moderate Passive　Pushy

High Aggressive / Low Passive　　　Debater

Moderate Aggressive / High Passive　　Cooperative

Moderate Aggressive / Moderate Passive　Emerging

Moderate Aggressive / Low Passive　　Negotiator

Low Aggressive / High Passive　　Passive

Low Aggressive / Moderate Passive　Supportive

Low Aggressive / Low Passive　　　Assertive

For each personality type, we provided an evaluation of approximately 1,000 characters covering key characteristics and points to be aware of. The content was developed based on prior research and the clinical experience of the authors.

This assessment has not been subjected to factor analysis or checks for reliability and validity. It reflects the professional judgment of specialists, but please note that it lacks sufficient statistical grounding and is not intended for use in academic research.

[1] Solter, A. (1949). Conditioned Reflex Therapy. New York: Creative Age Press.
[2] Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Stanford University Press.
[3] Alberti, R. E., & Emmons, M. L. (1970). Your Perfect Right. Impact Publishers.
[4] Smith, M. J. (1975). When I Say No, I Feel Guilty. Bantam Books.
[5] Rathus, S. A. (1973). A 30-item schedule for assessing assertive behavior. Behavior Therapy, 4(3), 398–406.
[6] Galassi, J. P., DeLo, J. S., Galassi, M. D., & Bastien, S. (1974). The College Self-Expression Scale: A measure of assertiveness. Behavior Therapy, 5(2), 165–171.
[7] Machida, T., Suzuki, E., Matsuo, M., Setoguchi, H., Kitajima, Y., & Miwa, K. (2020). Reliability and validity of the Nurse Assertiveness Scale. Journal of the Japan Society for Health Care Management, 29(1).
[8] Sekiguchi, Y., & Osada, Y. (2019). Development of an Assertiveness Self-Statement Scale for middle-aged and older adults: Examination of reliability and validity.
[9] Suzuki, E., Takayama, Y., Maruyama, A., Azuma, T., Tomita, Y., Yamamoto, T., Matsuo, M., Kobihiyama, A., & Sato, K. (2017). Development of an assertiveness scale for newly graduated female nurses. Journal of Japanese Nursing Science, 37.
[10] Nozue, T., & Nozue, K. (2001). A study on assertiveness among nurses (1): Characteristics and associated factors of nurse assertiveness. Japanese Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 10(1), 86–94.